Pepperberg


 * Cognitive and Communicative Abilities of Grey Parrots- Pepperberg**

Allospecific communication- learning another species code Conspecific communication- learning own species code

"By observing what is or is not acquired" (p. 83, under significance of interspecies communication) - how are we able to find and understand what is/isn't acquired?

"Although this manner of determining nonhuman referentiality is inferential, direct determination also has difficulties" - in what ways might we go about finding out since we can't directly know. Inference is just that, and not a very constructive way to understand things.

"Again, these mechanisms are likely part of existent cognitive architectures, not taught //de novo//" - But how is it possible for the grey parrot to have structures that we have for language? Does this mean that other animals may also but just cannot express themselves in the same way?

Nurture, modifying nature: this makes sense in a physiological and psychological way, but are these modifications everlasting or do they require constant reworking?

"and also illustrates the consequences of making an error" (p. 84, top center para) - so is this really //learning// or is it more of operant conditioning?

Both parrots and humans learn to reference items with specific labels, use those labels accurately within context, and learn socially. Using M/R training, parrots were able to identify certain objects they wanted as well as the object in front of them. M/R training focuses on intrinsic reinforcers, meaning that the parrot's reward will be what they asked for. A parrot may opt for a different reward after identifying the object at hand, but they must do so by beginning their request with "I want..." This shows that the parrot is able to differentiate between objects- they are able to identify an object, but ask for a different one. Using extrinsic rewards means the reward would not be at all related to the object at hand, this making it so the parrot wouldn't be able to differentiate between what they get and what they identify.

M/R training also involves the use of two humans interacting with the parrot. The parrot is competing with the second human for the trainers attention. They see the example of the second human identifying and requesting objects and mimic that behavior. The parrot Griffin was taught in 50 sessions with only the trainer, but did not begin to use labels until after M/R was used. Griffin most likely understood the labels prior to M/R training, but had not yet understood how to use them until the model was used.

Parrots' behavior is not identical to humans', but is similar to nonhuman primates' behavior. It is important to know that mammalian brains are not the reason why humans have language. All species went under similar evolutionary pressures and nonhuman animals have similar behavior patterns due to this and similar neurological structures, not because mammalian brains are special. Examining all species is necessary to understanding evolutionary pressures that may have helped to create existing ACS behaviors.

appearing neat and comprehensive only by ignoring the true complexities of an issue;

appearing neat and comprehensive only by ignoring the true complexities of an issue;

Grey parrots (psittacus erithacus) Psittacine brain Alex: Irene’s oldest Grey Parrot subject Grey parrots taught English speech; label objects, colors, shapes, categories, quantities, and absence) Believes it is an existent neurological architecture Cheney & Seyfarth 1992 Learning another species’ code = allospecific learning Learning its own species’ code – conspecific learning Exceptional learning (learning that does not necessarily occur during natural development) Nurture vs nature Tools of interspecies communication facile: appearing neat and comprehensive only by ignoring the true complexities of an issue socially rich input allows parrots to acquire communication skills effectively REFERENCE- when they properly label an object they are rewarded FUNTION/context- the situation (in which an utterance is used and its effect) Social interaction- accents environmental components, emphasizes common attributes and underlying rules of diverse actions, and adds continual input M/R (model-rival) training system To target vocal behavior- 3 way social interactions (2 humans 1 parrot) Roles of trainer and model interchange, allowing the parrot to recognize that the questioner and respondent are not always the same, and the parrot can interact as well. Intrinsic Reinforcers: “To ensure the closest possible correlations of labels or concepts to be learned with their appropriate referents (rewarding a parrot for saying “X” by giving it an “X”) As opposed to extrinsic reinforcers Labeling and requesting were differentiated. “x” and “I want x” were used appropriately. 3 new Grey Parrots (Kyaaro, Alo, Griffin) These parrots were exposed to Alex’s training via audio recordings and then on to video recordings (both noninteractive sessions). They then received standard M/R training. An average of 70 M/R sessions were necessary to train the new 3 Grey Parrots to vocalize the proper labels for objects. Mutual Exclusivity: studying subtle changes in input Each object has only one label attributed to it (Liittschwager & Markman, 1994; Pepperberg and Wilcox, 2000) Whole object assumption (label refers to the whole object, not just a feature of it) Children and trained grey parrots like Alex accept multiple labels for one object, labels that identify different characteristics of an object (green key).
 * 1) a. directly states question content
 * 2) b. more contextual response within ecologically valid social contexts
 * 3) c. facilitates data comparisons
 * 4) d. testing of acquired communication code
 * 5) e. it is an open, arbitrary, and creative code w/ enormous signal variety
 * 6) f. extent of information animals perceive
 * the videos most likely failed to convince the parrots of reality due to their ability to see ultraviolet light which is not seen through a TV screen.

Combinatory Learning Common neural substrate is present for children developing the skill of combining words to create phrases. Parallel combinatory development is not limited to primates or the mammalian brain structure. Neurological substrates responsible for these behavior patterns are likely analogous across species (most likely due to evolutionary pressures)

Parallel Evolution; Avian & Mammalian abilities It’s important to look into the evolutionary pressures that propelled the communication systems across all species today.

Common hypothesis of communication; Intelligence is a correlate of primate’s complicated social systems and long lives (Rozin, 1976)

Pepperberg’s analysis of the Grey parrots brought light to the fact that mammals do not necessarily carry the leading communication skills compared to other species in the animal kingdom. Perhaps humans have given primates the credit of supreme social communicators because we identify with other primates like ourselves more than species of other orders. Pepperberg’s study shows that there is significant language and context cognition within the Aves class, and is worth comparing not only to non-human primates, but young human primates as well.

Vocabulary Terms:
 * Model/rival Training: a method of language training in which the parrot learns by watching interactions between two humans. One human asks the other questions and responds with either positive or negative feedback based on the other human's reaction. The respondent is both the model of what the parrot should be doing and a rival for the other human's attention.
 * Intrinsic reinforcement: rewarding the animal for referencing an item by giving the animal that item - ensures close relationship between the label and the item.
 * Extrinsic rewards: involves giving the animal a food item that has nothing to do with what the animal has learned. This makes it harder for the animal to associate the label and the item it refers to.
 * Mutual exclusivity: The concept of an item having only one label.
 * Whole-object assumption: the assumption that a label refers to an entire item and not just one part or aspect of it.

The method of training had a significant effect on the effectiveness of the training. Model/rival training was by far the most effective method. Other methods attempted to remove the reference, social interaction, or functionality from the experiments.

Although avian and mammalian brains are different, the communication abilities of Grey Parrots are in some ways comparable to human or nonhuman primate abilities. This is thought to be as a result of parallel evolution. Because both birds and primates have long lives and must cope with complex social situations, both birds and primates can benefit from the learning capabilities related to this kind of communication.

The more that is understood about the mind of the parrot, or any animal that is being researched/taught, the more we know how to work with and with their strengths, and how to teach them. A lot of progress and changes are shown in parrot training, like switching from a dominant trainer to multiple human trainers. Problems with one trainer were lack of learning both queries and answers, as well as the issue of the parrot only responding to one human/voice. The model/rival training incorporates role reversal and displays to the parrot referential, functional label use, corrective feedback, and the reward system. Shown that Grey parrots have phonological awareness; produce true imitation rather than just mimicking (many think parrots just repeat sounds and have no idea what they are saying >> also, maybe why parrots intelligence/potential was previously overlooked and thought less than apes << but studies show that parrots do understand and relate labels to objects and so on); they learn how a label can be used, such as in a request and know how to deny/ask for something else.

I agree it's important to point out that mammals are not necessarily leading in communication skills compared to other animals. Also, the question of the evolutionary pressures that started ACSs and progressed which ones/why (parallel evolution) to encompass the ability to speak or to communicate in English.

